grammar materials

Sentences are characterized by words that share a structure & form a single expression. In English and many other languages, sentences end in some form of punctuation.






A sentence typically has at least one clause. Traditionally, we say that a clause is made up of a subject - the performer of the verb's action - and a predicate - the verb and its objects. The main verb in a clause is typically a finite verb, marked for tense/aspect/mood information and agreeing in person and number with the subject, such as play-s in he plays the guitar. Non-finite verbs include infinitives like to play along with participles & gerunds like playing.
subject : Her friend
predicate :speaks many languages. (finite verb speaks)

subject : You
predicate:have never understood it. (finite verb have + non-finite understood)


Some constructions contain one finite verb with a non-finite verb, like try to reserve in I tried to reserve a room. These are counted as part of the same clause. Also, notice that a sentence can contain more than one clause: I tried to reserve a room, but the hotel was booked has two clauses, one based around the construction tried to reserve and the other around was booked.
Types of clauses

Clauses come in a variety of shapes and sizes. A matrix clause or independent clausecontains a finite verb and can stand as an expression in its own right. A dependent clauseor complement clause contains a finite verb, but is structured to be attached to a main clause. A small clause occurs as part of another clause and often contains a non-finte verb.
a. matrix clause,small clause,complement clause
     He saw the movie.
     She wanted to stay.
     She told him that he should stay, too.

b. matrix clause,small clause, complementary clause,small clause
     I tried to tell him that he should go...
     ...but he had to study.


Dependent clauses are sometimes called "subordinate clauses", while dependent clauses might be referred to as "main clauses".

We might also classify clauses based on the kind of information they share. Relative clauses give more information about a noun, such as I knew in you're not the man I knew.Interrogative clauses ask a question directly (he asked, "Are you happy?") or indirectly (he wonders whether you are happy). Existential clauses in English typically begin withthere is or there are. Conditional or hypothetical statements contain a protasis (if...) and anapodosis (then...).

Who is he? (direct interrogative clause)
...who he is. (indirect interrogative clause)
There's a mouse in this house! (existential clause)
...that I saw yesterday (relative clause)
If you knew Latin... (protasis)
...you would be able to conjugate that verb. (apodosis)


Of these, notice that the apodosis, existential and direct interrogative clauses are independent. The others are subordinate clauses.
Practice Exercise

1) Is the verb finite or non-finite in the following phrases?
      the dog ran fast, I don't know, to be real, he is happy about it

2) How many clauses can you find in the following sentences?
a) There's a lot to learn in syntax.
b) He asked me if I arrived safely.
c) If you can't find your way, please ask for help.

3) In the examples from the last question, which clauses are dependent? Which are independent? Which are small clauses?

4) Label the clauses you found above based on the type of information they share.